Stripe Integration: We’ve had a number of Visa payments from US customers not going through Stripe. I suspect it may because Bullet modal screen does not ask for any address details. Is this something you’ve seen happen before? Thanks!

You must be gone. That modal is controlled by stripe not bullet.
So if the payment isn't been collected you'd need to take it up with them.
If Bullet isn't receiving the message from Stripe to mark invoices as paid then that's us.